Global Cultural Diversity Conference Proceedings, Sydney
Introduction
Stephen Castles
Centre for Multicultural Studies, University of Wollongong, Australia
Increasing cultural diversity has become one of the major forces of change in the contemporary world. It is closely linked to current trends towards globalisation, which affects individuals, societies and governments at all levels. The process of globalisation goes back to European colonial expansion since the 15th century, but has accelerated dramatically since 1945. The bipolar world order which emerged from the Second World War created the conditions for decolonisation and for rapid increases in international flows of capital, commodities and population. More recently, the end of the Cold War held out the prospect of global integration in economic, cultural and political relations. This coincided with the micro-electronic revolution in information technology, creating the conditions for even greater international mobility of investments, goods, ideas and people.
Today, there are few corners of the world which have escaped rapid transformations in work and ways of life. The changes are often initially felt on the economic and social levels, but it is important to realise that they are the result of underlying cultural shifts. The increasingly pervasive western values of rationality and progress have ambivalent consequences. Historically, they were the precondition for European expansion, but only at the cost of conquest and exploitation for many of the world's peoples. Recent economic and technological advances offer the promise of higher living standards, but the growing destructiveness of military power (based on the same technologies) threatens human survival. Industrialisation can bring social progress, but at the cost of environmental degradation and loss of bio-diversity.
Globalisation and cultural change are thus inextricably linked. Mass migrations since 1945 have led to the emergence of multi-ethnic societies, or increased the complexity of existing ethnic mosaics. The relatively few countries which have not had major population movements have experienced cultural change through the internationalisation of the media. Cultural change has been unforeseen, and has frequently been perceived as unsettling or even threatening.
Nowhere is this more true than in Australia. When postwar immigration started in 1947, Australian society was insular and Eurocentric, with a history of discrimination towards indigenous peoples and immigrants. Policies were designed to exclude non-Europeans, who were seen as a danger to national identity and security. European immigrants were to be assimilated, and no major changes in our culture were anticipated. As we know, things turned out very differently. Mass immigration has transformed Australia into one of the world's most cosmopolitan societies. By making immigrants into citizens, Australia's democratic system opened the door to cultural diversity and change. Since the 1970s, Australia has consciously embraced this new reality through the policy of multiculturalism. Cultural diversity is now seen as central to Australia's way of life, identity and relations with other countries.
Australia has been a pioneer in adapting to increased cultural diversity a problem which now confronts more and more societies. It was for this reason that the Australian Government, in partnership with the New South Wales Government and the Australian Multicultural Foundation, decided to hold the world's first Global Cultural Diversity Conference. In April 1995, over one thousand people from some fifty countries assembled in Sydney for this unique event. Participants were united by the aim of making cultural diversity into an instrument for achieving human progress and a more peaceful, creative and secure world. The diversity of the participants reflected the conference theme; officials of international organisations, ministers and public servants mingled with representatives of indigenous peoples, community activists, business leaders, academics, students, public servants, human rights lawyers, journalists and artists.
More than seventy speakers covered a vast array of topics, and yet all were concerned with one central dilemma: how can the world's people cope with the fundamental contradictions brought about by processes of global change? Integration and fragmentation are closely intertwined. Globalisation of the economy, of politics and of culture can both unite and divide; they can bring prosperity and peace, but also misery and conflict. Internationalisation of the media and large-scale international migration can enhance cultural diversity, but can also destroy local cultures and languages. The challenge in every field of endeavour is to seize the new opportunities offered by our global culture without sacrificing the heterogeneous values and traditions which make up the human heritage.
The dialectic of integration and fragmentation is most obvious in politics; the post-Cold War world is experiencing simultaneous trends to supra-nationalism (through bodies like the European Union and the World Trade Organisation), and to neo-nationalism (for instance though the breakup of the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia). This questions the system of international relations premised on a world of nation-states, as embodied in the Charter of the United Nations. Australian Prime Minister Paul Keating pointed out in his opening address to the conference that the last half-century has seen profound changes in the character of nation-states and in the relationships between them. There is a need to redefine the state and the nation, and to create societies rich in cultural diversity, which have a sense of identity and unity without exclusionary nationalism. The Prime Minister said that Australia, with more than 220 nationalities represented in its population, is a particularly appropriate place for debating such issues.
United Nations Secretary General Dr Boutros Boutros-Ghali stressed the great relevance of the conference for the fiftieth anniversary of the United Nations. Cultural diversity is a major and immediate concern of humanity, and cultural rights are a vital element of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. He argued that the current "explosion of micronationalism" is partly a reaction to the use of culture as a tool of oppression in the era of colonialism. Dr Boutros-Ghali said that the task of the United Nations was to work toward "three pillars" of a global culture: "a culture of peace, a culture of development and a culture of democracy".
The theme of cultural rights as a core element of human rights ran through the debates. The principle is vital for the world's indigenous peoples, who experienced the ostensibly universalistic and rational culture of the West as a colonialist invasion, designed to dispossess them of land and heritage. The strength of their own cultures was the key to survival and resistance. Today, indigenous peoples represent a vast reservoir of cultural diversity, as crucial to human survival as biological and genetic diversity.
Reconciling the rights of indigenous peoples with the claims of later immigrants can be extremely complex, as speakers from Fiji, New Zealand and Canada demonstrated. Aboriginal leaders like Lois O'Donoghue and Noel Pearson argued that Australian multiculturalism has come of age through recognising the special role of indigenous people in society. The 1992 Mabo Decision, which finally threw out the colonial legal doctrine of "terra nullius", and the 1993 Commonwealth Native Title Act are crucial for reconciliation. Centuries of oppression have left indigenous people as the most disadvantaged group in many post-colonial societies. Cultural rights alone mean little if they are not accompanied by measures to achieve social justice.
Rebuilding nations after colonialism and conflict is a burning issue. As Thabo Mbeki, Deputy President of the Republic of South Africa, told the Conference, apartheid was constructed as a way of managing diversity, but the result was actually criminal mismanagement, leaving a legacy of oppression and hate. Now South Africans are working to transform their "rainbow nation" into a non-racial and non-sexist democracy. Israel, Palestine and many other countries face similar challenges.
The international mobility of people is one of the major causes of cultural diversity, and this mobility seems set to increase. Australia's positive experience as an immigration country has helped us move from the racist White Australia policy to a non-discriminatory model, vital for building links with the Asia-Pacific region. As Minister of Immigration and Ethnic Affairs, Senator Nick Bolkus, emphasised, inclusive citizenship policies and measures to achieve social justice for all have been crucial factors in Australia's successful model for migrant settlement. This contrasts with the situation in other areas. Tara Mukherjee, President of the European Union Migrants Forum, told the Conference that Europe now has 13 million people who originate outside the European Union the equivalent of a "16th member state", with more people than Belgium, the Netherlands or Portugal! Yet most countries are reluctant to grant citizenship and cultural rights to these new minorities. Immigrants are treated as "denizens", as Professor Tomas Hammar from Sweden put it, who are permanent members of society, and yet are excluded from certain basic rights.
The most deprived group of international migrants is the world's 26 million refugees; they leave their countries due to persecution and then may find themselves victims of discrimination and racist violence in the countries of refuge. According to Australian Foreign Minister Gareth Evans, the number of refugees has doubled since 1987, mainly as a result of intra-state conflicts, which are often based on ethno-nationalist or religious claims. Only about one-in-five of the world's states are more-or-less ethnically homogenous. Senator Evans argued that collective security and peace-building strategies are vitally important for the international community.
Mobility of people and globalisation of culture has made the world's cities into crucibles of economic competition, social change, and cultural innovation. The conference was told about the varied experiences of cities like Los Angeles, Berlin, Singapore and Sydney. The consequences of globalisation have to be worked through at the local level by city councils, community organisations and social movements. Economic and social change can lead to insecurity and conflict, and groups which feel threatened may turn on minorities. Where governments fail to work for social justice and good community relations, the result can be violence and social disintegration.
The world market and the increasing mobility of capital, commodities and labour are central aspects of modernity. It is curious that diversity of markets and of workforces was until recently widely seen as a problem, rather than an opportunity. This attitude is changing in many places today. Senator Peter Cook, the Australian Minister for Industry, Science and Technology, argued that our internal diversity provides major advantages in coping with global diversity. That is why the notion of "productive diversity" has become so important for workforce management and trade. Hong Kong writer Hari Bedi pointed out that the most important competitive edge today is competency in managing human resources. Similarly, Nobuo Tateisi of Japan's Omron Corporation argued that recognition of diversity is the wellspring of creativity in many international companies.
But "productive diversity" has yet to be universally accepted, especially for migrant women workers. Caroline Alcorso, Coordinator of the New South Wales Working Women's Centre, told of continuing discrimination and sexual harassment at work. Sexism and racism are frequently intertwined in the experience of indigenous, migrant and refugee women. Yet it is important to be aware of the diversity of women's experiences, as Professor Oya Arasli from Ankara reminded us with her paper on women in Islamic societies. Joan Kirner, former Premier of Victoria, said that Australian history has been constructed around the male contribution to national identity, while there is often silence about the contribution of women. Redressing the balance means not only telling the story of women's achievements, but also securing equal representation of women in parliament, the economy, education and the arts.
A major focus of the conference was on culture in the more specific sense of education, language, media and the arts. UNESCO Director-General Federico Mayor argued that cultural pluralism was one of the three great challenges for the human community in the 21st century, along with sustainable development and greater international democracy. Dr Pieter Batalaan, Secretary-General of the International Association for Intercultural Education, described the current battle in Europe between pluralism and democracy on the one side, and nationalism and fundamentalism on the other. New types of intercultural education are vital to prepare citizens for democratic, multicultural societies. Case studies of schools in Israel, the USA and Australia gave an idea of what such an education could look like.
As Joseph Lo Bianco, architect of Australia's National Language Policy, pointed out, few modern countries are monolingual. Global diversity questions the old ethno-linguistic definition of the nation. This presents new challenges to education and culture. Policies of monolingualism in countries with multilingual populations may be a form of discrimination, which preserves the cultural dominance of a specific group. Professor Tove Skutnabb-Kangas of Roskilde University in Denmark described monolingualism as "a dangerous illness... which the world should try to eradicate". She argued that linguistic rights are a crucial aspect of human rights.
The media reflect the ambivalence of globalisation; they can open new cultural vistas, but they can also submerge local cultural traditions under a mass of bland products from global cultural factories. Ms Sawsan Madina, Head of Television for Australia's multicultural Special Broadcasting Service (SBS), reminded the conference that until 1957 all Australian newspapers and broadcasts had to be in English, for fear of subversion. As late as 1970, news and entertainment programs seemed to be all about Britain and the USA, and sport was endless cricket. There have been remarkable changes in the media since then not least through the influence of the SBS. Marcia Langton, Chairperson of the Australian Institute for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders, described how film and television depictions of indigenous people have long been used as means of control and discipline. However, matters have improved; Ms Langton argues that the high standard of much of the media coverage of the native title debate of 1993 changed significantly the way Aboriginal people are portrayed.
In many countries control of the media and of communications is used to buttress undemocratic rule by specific power groups. Where political power is linked to ethnicity, the media may encourage racism towards minorities. Indonesian journalist Ratih Hardjono described how television images of bloodshed linked to ethnic conflicts often obscure the economic issues which are at the root of the problem. She spoke of the dismal alternatives of government control of the media or control by powerful global entrepreneurs driven by profit considerations. Yet modern communications create networks which defy control from above. Senator Bolkus spoke of the new "global cultural teleconference", and the way people on opposite sides of the globe were meeting and even falling in love via the internet. The communications revolution may mean a democratisation of access to information, with unforeseeable consequences for political institutions.
The arts play a crucial role in culturally diverse societies. Often the creative action is to be found on the fault lines where different cultures meet. One of the key experiences for many conference participants was the dramatic opening ceremony, with its panoply of the many styles that make up Australia's living culture. In the seminar on the arts, Dr Angela Impey explored music as a force for social change in South Africa a theme taken up by many other speakers. The question for the arts community in each country is how to maintain criteria of excellence and professionalism without imposing a canon based on unconsciously ethno-specific criteria. Openness to difference and innovation can enrich the various aesthetic traditions, without destroying their distinctiveness or authenticity.
Throughout the conference, participants from many countries remarked on Australia's successful model for a multicultural society. For instance, UNESCO Director-General Federico Mayor commended the way in which multiculturalism embraces all Australians and not just minority ethnic groups. He praised the links between multiculturalism, social justice and democratic citizenship. As Prime Minister Keating pointed out, the Australian experience does give grounds for hope, because it shows that societies can be changed, that an inward looking culture can be made outward looking, and that ideas of threats can be changed to perceptions of rewards and opportunities. According to the Prime Minister, the essential balance in the multicultural equation is the simultaneous promotion of individual and collective rights and expression, and of common national interests and values.
But Australian participants were often self-critical. Professor Jerzy Zubrzycki suggested it was time to move on from multiculturalism, proposing the concept "many cultures, one Australia". Liberal Senator Jim Short expressed support for multiculturalism, but emphasised the need to ensure that encouragement of cultural diversity is not achieved at the expense of shared values. Several speakers emphasised that policies on cultural diversity could degenerate into mere rhetoric if they are not matched by substantial measures to achieve institutional change and social justice. The general feeling of the conference was that multiculturalism is the best way of building national identity in culturally diverse countries, but that it cannot stand still. The philosophy and practice of multiculturalism must go on evolving as a result of democratic debate.
The 1995 Global Cultural Diversity Conference may go down in history as an important milestone in international efforts to address some of the most pressing problems of our time. It celebrated cultural diversity, while never losing sight of the danger of conflicts where states and societies fail to maintain an equitable order. The spectres of Bosnia, Rwanda, Chechnya and Somalia were always lurking in the background. The conference met in the spirit of Albert Einstein's famous adage "one world or none". Participants stressed the indivisibility of cultural rights and social justice: the full creative potential of cultural diversity cannot be realised in societies marked by gross inequalities, nor in a world split between a rich North and an impoverished South. Cultural diversity cannot be seen in isolation from strategies for sustainable development, human rights, good governance and world peace.
This introduction has barely scratched the surface of the multi-faceted debates. The proceedings of the conference contain a great wealth of ideas and information. They are worth reading in detail, for they present a unique resource in an area of enormous importance.
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